Press + flow. Pour + solidify. Cut + chip.

Forging deforms metal at high temperature — grain structure flows to follow the part shape. Result: grain boundaries aligned with part contours, no weak directions perpendicular to load. Forged connecting rod has 2-3× fatigue life of cast equivalent. For high-stress rotating or cyclic loading (crankshafts, connecting rods, fasteners), forging is preferred. For static loading, casting may be adequate.

Investment (lost-wax): wax pattern + ceramic shell + metal pour. Expensive mold (pattern tooling), fine detail, best for aerospace and medical. Volumes 100-10,000 typical. Die casting (pressure): liquid metal injected into steel die. Fast cycle, high volume, limited to aluminum/zinc/magnesium. Volumes 10,000+ typical. For stainless or steel castings, investment casting. For aluminum at high volume, die casting.

Below 100-500 parts (depending on part complexity): CNC usually cheaper than casting because casting has high tooling amortization. Simple CNC geometry: break-even even higher (1000+ parts). Complex CNC geometry (5-axis, multiple setups): casting wins at lower volumes. For unique one-off or low-volume parts, CNC is default choice.

Very common. Cast near-net shape for cost-effective bulk, CNC critical features for tolerance. Example: cast engine block with investment casting for most geometry, CNC machine bearing journals, cylinder bores, mating surfaces. Reduces CNC material removal (cost savings), achieves CNC tolerance where needed. We coordinate hybrid casting + CNC workflows for many customers.

For high-strength applications like aerospace fasteners: forged often preferred. Billet machined parts start with bar stock — directional properties in rolling direction only. Forged parts have 3D grain flow following geometry. Fasteners, aerospace brackets, automotive connecting rods: forged. General machined parts: billet. Cost: forging $10-30K+ tooling vs billet minimal, so volume matters.

Powder metal: metal powder compacted in die, sintered. Near-net shape, moderate mechanical properties, very high volume economical (100K+ parts). Used for: automotive bearings, small gears, porous metal (oil-impregnated bushings). Between casting and forging in properties. Tool cost similar to die casting. For high volumes of small precision parts without maximum mechanical requirements, powder metal is economical.